Tag Archive for: quantum mechanics

The Journey of Sunlight: Understanding the Origins and Lifespan of Our Solar Lifesource

The Journey of Sunlight: Tracing the Origins of Our Lifesource

Imagine standing on a quiet hill, watching the sky explode into a breathtaking display of colors as the sun rises above the horizon. It’s a sensation many of us experience regularly—vibrant hues of orange, pink, and red dancing across the sky. Yet, this mesmerizing sunlight has traveled an extraordinary journey before illuminating our world, and it’s a story that begins long before it reaches our eyes. From the intense core of the Sun to the vast void of space, the photons we see were born from a nuclear engine that’s been churning out energy for 4.5 billion years. Understanding the history and mechanics behind the sun’s light allows us to appreciate this daily spectacle in an entirely new way.

From Dust to Star: The Birth of the Sun

To grasp the complexity of sunlight, we must revisit the formation of our solar system, over 4.6 billion years ago, in a quiet region of the Milky Way. Back then, the area was dominated by a massive cloud of gas and dust called a giant molecular cloud. These clouds contain the remnants of previous generations of stars—debris thrown into space following supernovae that scattered key elements like hydrogen, helium, carbon, and nitrogen across the universe.

While these clouds drifted silently, something extraordinary triggered star formation: the shockwave from a nearby supernova. This event compressed parts of the cloud, leading to the formation of dense regions that collapsed under their own gravity. Scientists speculate that this is how our Sun began to form, within a dense, spinning region of the cloud called the protosolar nebula.

The Formation of a Protostar

The gravitational collapse of a cloud this size didn’t produce just a single object. Instead, the collapse fragmented the molecular cloud into numerous star-forming regions, leading to what we now call protostellar cores. These embryonic stars, still lacking the heat and pressure required to ignite nuclear fusion, represented the earliest recognizable stages of star formation.

As the core continued to condense, it grew denser and hotter, paving the way for the eventual birth of the Sun as a true star. During this time, a disc of dust and gas began to swirl around the protostar, a crucial development responsible for forming the planets and moons of our solar system.

Nuclear Fusion: The Sun Ignites

After millions of years of contraction, the core’s internal temperature reached a critical point, around 10 million degrees Celsius. At this temperature, hydrogen atoms fused together through nuclear fusion, forming helium and releasing immense amounts of energy in the process. With this burst of fusion, the Sun was finally born as a main-sequence star, a phase it has been living in for billions of years.

Hydrogen fusion is the force providing the energy that powers the Sun. It is also the process that balances the Sun’s inward gravitational force with an outward pressure, keeping the star stable. Eugene Parker, in his landmark paper on stellar physics, said, “The Sun’s energy is a primordial force in the seemingly fragile balance between cosmic immensity and local scale. From protostar to red giant, nuclear fusion marks the key junctions of this life cycle.”

<Sun nuclear fusion process>

The Vital Role of Quantum Mechanics

Nuclear fusion in stars like the Sun wouldn’t make sense without quantum mechanics. Despite high temperatures, the Sun’s core doesn’t have enough energy to allow protons—which usually repel each other due to their positive charges—to fuse on their own. Here’s where quantum tunneling enters the picture. This extraordinary phenomenon allows particles to bypass energy barriers they otherwise couldn’t cross, enabling the Sun’s fusion process to proceed.

This subtle yet profound quantum behavior is a key reason why the Sun has been able to burn steadily for billions of years, converting around four million tons of mass into energy every second—a staggering amount, yet one just right to sustain life on Earth.

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Inside the Sun: The Journey of a Photon

Energy produced in the core of the Sun doesn’t simply flow outward quickly and freely. In fact, it takes a photon thousands, even hundreds of thousands of years, to exit the Sun’s dense layers before it finally emerges as the soft, glowing light we’ve come to know. From the core, the photon begins a path that resembles a random walk, constantly absorbed and re-emitted as it moves through a variety of solar layers, including the radiative zone and the convective zone.

These convoluted phases serve to redistribute and transform the energy. A photon that started as a high-energy gamma ray at the Sun’s core gradually weakens as it propagates through the layers and cools until it becomes the visible light we see. This process underscores just how complex the Sun’s internal structure is compared to its shining outer appearance.

Solar Layers Overview

Solar Layer Key Characteristics Energy Transport Present
Core The Sun’s powerhouse; site of nuclear fusion. Radiation
Radiative Zone Photons are constantly absorbed and re-emitted, slowing their journey. Radiation
Convective Zone Plasma moves in giant convective cells, cycling material between the hot core and cooler outer regions. Convection
Photosphere The visible surface where light is finally released into space. Radiation

<Sun surface convection granules>

The Future of Our Sun

Like all stars, the Sun is destined for change. Thousands of years from now, after depleting its hydrogen fuel, the Sun will transition into a red giant, expanding to engulf Mercury, Venus, and possibly Earth. But that’s a long way off—some estimate about five billion years in the future. After that phase, it will gradually fade and become a white dwarf, cooling down over millions of years. This cosmic evolution, while many millennia away, will shape the next chapter of our solar system’s story.

Conclusion: Appreciating the Sun’s Journey

As we stand on a quiet hill, gazing out at a sunrise, it’s easy to forget the intricate, multi-million-year journey those photons underwent just to bring us light and warmth. From their birth in a collapsing cloud of gas to their chaotic journey through the Sun’s layers, the light ultimately streaming across our planet carries within it the secrets of the universe. The next time you witness a sunrise, remember the complexities behind that startling show of colors—a continuous process that began over 4.6 billion years ago.

<Sunrise over a calm horizon>

The Sun’s story, majestic and complicated, is a reminder that behind the ordinary sights of our everyday lives, remarkable cosmic events are continuously shaping our existence.

Focus Keyphrase: The journey of sunlight

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How String Theory May Hold the Key to Quantum Gravity and a Unified Universe

How String Theory Could Unify the Universe with Quantum Gravity

When it comes to understanding the deepest workings of the universe, much of modern physics postulates that reality consists of elementary particles like quarks, gluons, and photons. But some think that a far more profound theory could bring everything together—and that theory is String Theory. From gravity to the particles that form matter, the potential of this theory to explain the fundamental nature of the cosmos is nothing short of revolutionary.

In this article, we will explore the basic concepts of String Theory and its aspirations to become a “Theory of Everything (ToE).” Informed by the work I undertook at Harvard University and my ongoing interest in quantum theory, this discussion aims to break down the questions that both inspire and challenge this exciting theory in physics.

Why Strings? The Origins of String Theory

So, how did String Theory emerge as a possible solution to one of the most vexing issues in physics today—that is, incorporating gravity into quantum mechanics?

The theory first gained traction in the late 1960s when physicists were studying the strong nuclear force, which governs how quarks bind within protons and neutrons. Early investigations revealed peculiar properties, particularly in hadrons (collections of quarks), which suggested that quarks might be connected by small, vibrating “strings” composed of strong nuclear energy. In this version, strings could potentially explain these bonds through their vibrational characteristics.

Although this early attempt focused on understanding the strong force, it soon morphed into something much larger—a hypothetical explanation for all particles and forces in the universe, including gravity, which has long resisted quantum description through the standard model of particle physics.

What Makes String Theory Different?

What’s unique about String Theory is that rather than treating particles as 0-dimensional points, it suggests they are 1-dimensional objects—strings. These strings vibrate at specific frequencies, and it’s these vibrational modes that determine fundamental properties such as particle mass and spin. Picture a guitar string: depending on how it vibrates, different notes (or in this case, particles) emerge.

But here’s the catch: these strings are extraordinarily small—at the Planck scale, about 10-35 meters—making them billions of times smaller than anything we can observe today.

A Grand Unified Theory? The Role of Extra Dimensions

In order for String Theory to predict the universe accurately, it requires additional spatial dimensions beyond the three we are familiar with (length, width, height). Initially, the theory needed 26 dimensions to work, but this was refined down to 10 dimensions in what we now call Superstring Theory.

Why so many dimensions? Well, in the world of physics, additional dimensions mean extra “space” for these strings to vibrate in—leading to the rich variety of particles and forces that form the reality we experience. These extra dimensions are theorized to be compactified into incredibly tiny shapes, so we don\u2019t perceive them in our everyday lives. Think of them like tiny loops or folds that are “rolled up” tightly within the structure of space-time itself.

Ed Witten’s introduction of M-theory in 1995 offered a more refined version of the theory, adding an 11th dimension, potentially opening new possibilities for explaining gravitational forces.

Solving the Quantum Gravity Puzzle

But how does String Theory propose to solve the pesky problem of quantum gravity? In the standard model, gravity remains a bit of an outsider. The graviton, a hypothetical quantum of the gravitational field, doesn’t fit neatly with the quantum mechanical descriptions of the other forces (like electromagnetism or the strong nuclear force).

This is where String Theory could step in. One unexpected result in early string models was the appearance of a massless spin-2 particle, which matches the predicted properties of the graviton. Thus, strings could provide an elegant solution to unifying gravity under a quantum framework.

Unlike point particles, which often result in undesired mathematical problems like infinite energies (in the context of gravity), 1-dimensional strings offer a way around these issues. Their extended nature “smooths out” these problematic interactions, offering a more stable theory for describing the gravitational field at quantum scales.

<Planck scale strings>

Challenges and Controversies

Although String Theory holds an alluring promise of unifying all forces of nature, it is far from proven. One of the big issues is that the theory provides no testable predictions that can currently be verified or falsified with experimentation. In fact, there is estimated to be about 10500 possible “solutions” or configurations of the compact extra dimensions, making it nearly impossible to know which one (if any) describes our universe.

As with many fields in science and technology, including my own work in AI and ML, refining the model is crucial. In our exploration of AI limitations, I discussed the role model refinement plays in achieving real-world use cases. Similarly, for String Theory to go beyond a beautiful, elegant idea and become a staple of scientific fact, physicists will need breakthrough verification—something many are still working toward.

<Vibrating string behavior in physics>

Conclusion: The Future of String Theory

Despite its current limitations, String Theory continues to attract some of the brightest minds in the field of theoretical physics. Its elegance, mathematical beauty, and potential applicability to Wolfram’s Theory of Everything and other grand unification concepts make it a compelling road map toward the ultimate understanding of our universe. Whether strings are the fundamental building blocks remains to be seen, but their role in helping to solve the mysteries of quantum gravity keeps them at the forefront of scientific discourse.

As I have found in my journey, from AI and Machine Learning to astronomy with my group of amateur astronomer friends, theories often take time to mature, and may not always have linear paths. String Theory, while still controversial, may one day unlock the final mysteries of our cosmos.

<Graviton wave particle concept>

Focus Keyphrase: String Theory and Quantum Gravity

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Loop Quantum Gravity vs. String Theory: Can Either Truly Explain the Universe?

The Unresolved Debate Between String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity

Recently, I was reminded of a long-standing debate in the fundamental physics community between two competing theories for quantum gravity: String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG). While both aim to reconcile the laws of quantum mechanics with Einstein’s theory of general relativity, their approaches diverge significantly. Over the years, String Theory has claimed much of the spotlight, but Loop Quantum Gravity had its moments, especially when its proponents swore it could be tested experimentally. However, recent criticisms have called into question whether LQG can still be considered a legitimate competitor or whether it has hit an empirical dead-end.

String Theory: Ambitious, but Unobservable

String Theory is unique because it doesn’t just attempt to explain quantum gravity—it also aspires to unify all the fundamental forces, effectively proposing a “Theory of Everything.” According to String Theory, the fundamental particles of the universe aren’t point-like particles but rather tiny, vibrating strings. These strings can take different vibrational modes, corresponding to the various particle types we observe today. In this sense, String Theory simplifies the number of fundamental assumptions, but that simplicity comes at a cost: testability.

Despite its potential for unification, String Theory’s weakness has always been its inability to produce direct empirical evidence. The theory often stands on beautiful mathematics but lacks experimental verification due to the minuscule scales at which string effects occur. As I often caution, consistent mathematical frameworks are not guarantees of reality—without empirical backing, they remain speculative. This is a point I have always emphasized in previous blogs, particularly in discussions on technological failures that arise from theoretical missteps.

For more on the intricacies of String Theory and its quest to explain it all, refer to my detailed analysis here.

Loop Quantum Gravity: A Less Ambitious yet Testable Quantum Gravity?

Loop Quantum Gravity takes a more modest approach by only attempting to quantize gravity. LQG does not aim to unify all the fundamental forces, which makes it somewhat less appealing to those looking for a grand unifying framework. However, advocates for LQG have argued over the years that it holds one significant advantage over String Theory: testability.

LQG aims to avoid the infinities that arise in traditional attempts to quantize gravity by treating space as a discrete structure made up of tiny loops, rather than a continuous fabric. These loops form a granular network, and the theory predicts that areas of space are quantized, meaning they can only take on certain discrete values. This granularity was initially presented as a feature that could be experimentally observed, with one test being a deviation from Einstein’s principle that the speed of light remains constant in a vacuum—a foundational concept of general relativity.

The theory suggested that distant light sources, such as gamma-ray bursts, would show variations in the speed of different colors of light if LQG were correct. Unfortunately for the LQG camp, numerous recent tests—most notably one in 2022 involving the brightest gamma-ray burst ever detected—have consistently shown no deviation from Einstein’s predictions, calling into question the empirical viability of LQG.

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The Crumbling of a Key Claim: Lorentz Invariance and Speed of Light Tests

This latest test from 2022 was a fatal blow for the faction of LQG researchers who argued that their theory would predict Lorentz Invariance violations (the concept that the speed of light is constant for all observers). The lack of any detection of varying light speeds has driven home the point that this particular prediction of LQG may need to be rethought or discarded altogether.

For instance, one of the theory’s co-founders, Lee Smolin, had pushed that Loop Quantum Gravity had practical insights because it allowed for measurable predictions. I recall past conversations with Smolin where I mentioned concerns about staking the reputation of LQG on a prediction that may fail to pan out. It appears those concerns were well-founded.

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While some might argue this is a setback for LQG, others within the loop quantum community, including voices like Carlo Rovelli, have long contended that such tests were never essential to the theory’s success. They argue that while LQG fundamentally changes how we view space, it doesn’t necessarily predict the sorts of deviations that Smolin’s faction had focused on. They offer explanations like “averaging over all possible ways to take space apart into loops,” a mathematical trick that avoids the need for observable violations.

The Future: Are These Theories Still Useful?

At this point, the divide between the camps over LQG and its testability seems irreparable. However, whether these theories contribute to future scientific discoveries remains an open question. While String Theory remains elegant in its unifying vision, its critics maintain that it has moved further away from testable predictions. Meanwhile, Loop Quantum Gravity no longer looks as testable as its founders once claimed.

There is a broader philosophical question to consider here regarding speculative physics. Do we pursue mathematical beauty at the expense of empirical verifiability? This is a question that transcends both String Theory and LQG and is certainly applicable to many areas of cutting-edge physics research, including topics discussed in my blog on the “Theory of Everything”.

Looking at these debates, I often come back to Alan Watts’ philosophy: sometimes, chasing after ultimate answers may not lead to the fulfillment we envision, and perhaps reconciling our limitations is part of understanding the beauty of the universe. In this sense, whether Loop Quantum Gravity or String Theory will one day lead us to a greater understanding of reality remains to be seen. Both have survived critiques based on little more than passionate advocacy, but ultimately, time and further tests will determine their place in the theoretical physics landscape.

Conclusion: Where Do We Go from Here?

The 2022 gamma-ray burst test that decisively showed no violations of the speed of light might have been a serious blow for Loop Quantum Gravity’s empirical basis, but as with many profound questions in physics, this story is far from over. Whether we continue down the path of LQG, turn back to String Theory, or find an entirely new handle on quantum gravity remains an exciting frontier for physicists. Theories such as Probability Theory can sometimes help in framing these predictive models better.

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Meanwhile, all eyes in the theoretical physics community should remain skeptical of major claims without strong empirical backing. As these debates rage on, we, as participants in the greater scientific conversation, should focus on remaining open but critical. As I see it, the beauty lies not just in these ambitious theories but also in our ability to test, refine, and ultimately change our understanding of the cosmos with new evidence at hand.

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Focus Keyphrase: Loop Quantum Gravity vs. String Theory

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Exploring the Universe with Loop Quantum Gravity: A New Perspective on Space-Time

Demystifying Loop Quantum Gravity: A Dive into the Quantum Fabric of the Universe

Amid the towering achievements and persistent mysteries of modern physics, one theory attempts to reconcile the monumental pillars of general relativity and quantum mechanics: Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG). As an avid enthusiast of physics, particularly quantum field theory, the exploration of the universe at its most fundamental level has always fascinated me. Loop Quantum Gravity, with its audacious aim to describe the quantum fabric of space-time itself, represents a thrilling frontier in theoretical physics. In this article, we will delve into the core concepts behind Loop Quantum Gravity, its implications, and why it stands out as a promising candidate for a theory of quantum gravity.

Understanding Space-Time as Quantized

At the heart of Loop Quantum Gravity is the concept that space-time is not a continuous fabric but consists of finite, discrete quanta. This concept fundamentally shifts our understanding from the smooth space-time described by Albert Einstein’s general relativity to a granular picture at the Planck scale (about \(10^{-35}\) meters).

Loop Quantum Gravity visualization

LQG mathematically formulates this quantum space-time using what are termed “spin networks” – abstract graphs whose edges and nodes embody the quantum states of space-time geometry. These networks evolve over time, depicting a dynamic, quantized geometry that differs markedly from the static, continuous field of classical relativity.

The Role of Spin Networks and Spin Foams

Spin networks provide the skeleton of space in LQG, offering a snapshot of the quantum state of the gravitational field. Nodes within these networks represent quanta of space, while the edges depict the spatial relationships between them. Transitioning from one quantum state to another, spin networks evolve, thereby generating a history of geometrical changes. This history is chronicled by “spin foams”, which are the higher-dimensional analogs of spin networks, representing space-time’s quantum evolution.

Spin Network and Spin Foam representations

Through spin networks and spin foams, LQG introduces a quantum theory that is background-independent, meaning it does not presuppose the existence of a fixed space-time backdrop, aligning with the principle of general relativity that space-time’s geometry is dynamic.

Implications for Black Hole Physics and Early Universe Cosmology

Loop Quantum Gravity’s quantized vision of space-time has profound implications, particularly in the realms of black hole physics and the universe’s infancy. By applying LQG to these extreme conditions, researchers have derived tantalizing insights, such as the possibility that black holes have discrete, quantized areas. This quantization could potentially solve the black hole information paradox, suggesting information could be preserved rather than destroyed by black holes.

Quantized areas of a black hole in Loop Quantum Gravity

In early universe cosmology, LQG offers a glimpse into pre-Big Bang scenarios, proposing mechanisms that could explain the universe’s bounce from a previous, contracting phase to its current expansion, avoiding the classical singularity problem entailed by the Big Bang theory.

Challenges and the Path Forward

Despite its promising prospects, Loop Quantum Gravity faces significant challenges. Notably, deriving tangible predictions that can be tested experimentally has proven difficult, a hurdle that must be overcome to empirically validate the theory. Furthermore, reconciling LQG with the vast array of phenomena explained by quantum field theory and the Standard Model of particle physics remains an ongoing endeavor.

In conclusion, as we navigate this intricate dance of quantum mechanics and general relativity, Loop Quantum Gravity offers a compelling framework that challenges our conventional understanding of the universe. Its exploration embodies the essence of physics and philosophy – an unending quest to comprehend the cosmos’s fundamental nature. As someone deeply enamored by the mysteries of physics, following the advancements in Loop Quantum Gravity feels like participating in an epoch-defining journey, one that inches us closer to unlocking the universe’s ultimate secrets.

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Exploring Hawking Radiation: A Key to Black Hole Mysteries

Delving into the Hawking Radiation: Unveiling Black Hole Mysteries

In an ever-expanding universe full of enigmatic celestial phenomena, black holes stand out as one of the most fascinating subjects for physicists and astronomers alike. My journey into astrophysics, albeit as a passionate enthusiast, has always drawn me towards these cosmic behemoths. They are not just a marvel to behold but also a treasure trove of physics extremes that challenge our understanding of the universe. Among the numerous phenomena associated with black holes, Hawking Radiation stands out for its quintessential role in demonstrating the intersection between quantum mechanics and gravitational theory.

Understanding Hawking Radiation

In 1974, Stephen Hawking proposed a groundbreaking theory that black holes are not entirely black but emit radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon. This phenomenon, known as Hawking Radiation, introduces a fascinating paradox into the nature of black holes, proposing that they can lose mass and eventually evaporate over time. The concept starts with the idea that the vacuum in quantum field theory is filled with temporary pairs of particles and antiparticles that form and annihilate in incredibly short timescales.

Near the event horizon of a black hole, however, something remarkable occurs. If a pair of such particles forms, one can fall into the black hole while the other escapes. The escaped particle adds energy to the universe, while the one captured subtracts mass from the black hole, as per Einstein’s equation \(E = mc^2\). Hence, the black hole loses mass through this process of particle escape, a compelling yet eerie evanescence we now refer to as Hawking Radiation.

Hawking Radiation diagram

The Equation Behind Hawking Radiation

The phenomenon is described mathematically by the equation:
\[ HR = \frac{\hbar c^6}{15360 \pi G^2 M^2} \]
where \(HR\) is the Hawking Radiation power, \(\hbar\) is the reduced Planck’s constant, \(c\) is the speed of light, \(G\) is the gravitational constant, and \(M\) is the mass of the black hole. This equation suggests that the radiation power is inversely proportional to the square of the mass of the black hole, indicating that smaller black holes radiate more powerfully.

Implications on Physics and Black Hole Paradoxes

One of the most tantalizing aspects of Hawking Radiation lies in its ability to bridge the gap between quantum mechanics and general relativity. It suggests a mechanism through which black holes not only emit radiation but also ultimately evaporate, posing fascinating questions about what happens to the information trapped inside a black hole. This is central to the black hole information paradox, a hotly debated topic in theoretical physics. Do the remnants of Hawking Radiation contain any information about the matter that fell into the black hole, or is it lost forever? The debate continues, fueling research and discussions in the scientific community.

Personal Reflections

My interest in astrophysics, though purely from the stance of an enthusiast, finds a peculiar charm in the contemplation of black holes and their mysteries. The sheer scale of ideas, from quantum fluctuations to the fabric of spacetime, captivates my imagination. Moreover, as someone deeply rooted in the realm of technology and artificial intelligence, I ponder over the parallels between decoding the mysteries of the cosmos and unlocking the potential of AI. Both realms challenge us to extend beyond our current understandings, pushing the boundaries of possible knowledge.

Traveling to places like Hawaii with my telescope, capturing the night sky, has been a cherished activity among my group of amateur astronomer friends. It’s during these stargazing sessions, under the serene, star-filled skies, that I reflect on the incredible work of physicists like Stephen Hawking and the profound mysteries they’ve unveiled. It’s a humbling reminder of the vastness of our universe and the pursuit of knowledge that drives us.

Conclusion

Hawking Radiation exemplifies the profound beauty of physics — its ability to unify seemingly unrelated domains (quantum mechanics and gravity) through a principle that challenges our understanding of the universe. As we continue to decode the mysteries encapsulated within black holes, we edge closer to answering some of the most fundamental questions about our universe’s very fabric. In this endeavor, Hawking Radiation stands as a beacon of our quest for knowledge, a testament to human curiosity and the unyielding quest to understand our cosmos.

Telescope viewing night sky

For further exploration into the cosmos and the intriguing interplay between different scientific realms, consider visiting some of my recent posts on https://www.davidmaiolo.com, where I delve into various aspects of technology, AI, and their applications in understanding our universe.

References & Further Reading

  • Hawking, S. W. (1974). Black hole explosions? Nature, 248(5443), 30-31.
  • Misner, C. W., Thorne, K. S., & Wheeler, J. A. (1973). Gravitation. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
  • Wald, R. M. (1984). General Relativity. University of Chicago Press.

Black hole illustrations

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